Setup & Loading Data

Study 1

Worth noting that all responses for study 1 are yes/no. No frequency responses.

Study 2

## [1] "Level 'spiritual_healing' not found in variable 'question.'"

Study 3

Analysis 1: Prayer Increases Spiritual Presence Events

Study 1

An informal summary: above and beyond differences across countries, rural vs. urban locations, and religious groups, the more frequently a person reported praying, the more spiritual events they reported having experienced. This is robust to many analytic decisions, including modeling responses at the item level vs. modeling average scores on the Spiritual Events scale and considering sample characteristics as fixed effects, nested random effects, or crossed random effects.

All participants

## # Fixed Effects
## 
## Parameter   | Coefficient |   SE |        95% CI | t(328) |      p
## ------------------------------------------------------------------
## (Intercept) |        0.02 | 0.24 | [-0.45, 0.49] |   0.09 | 0.926 
## prayfreqmin |        0.22 | 0.05 | [ 0.13, 0.32] |   4.50 | < .001
## 
## # Random Effects
## 
## Parameter                               | Coefficient
## -----------------------------------------------------
## SD (Intercept: religion:(site:country)) |        0.35
## SD (Intercept: site:country)            |        0.00
## SD (Intercept: country)                 |        0.50
## SD (Residual)                           |        0.79

Charismatic Christian participants only

## # Fixed Effects
## 
## Parameter   | Coefficient |   SE |        95% CI | t(171) |     p
## -----------------------------------------------------------------
## (Intercept) |        0.05 | 0.29 | [-0.52, 0.62] |   0.17 | 0.864
## prayfreqmin |        0.20 | 0.07 | [ 0.07, 0.33] |   3.06 | 0.003
## 
## # Random Effects
## 
## Parameter                    | Coefficient |   SE |       95% CI
## ----------------------------------------------------------------
## SD (Intercept: site:country) |        0.22 | 0.13 | [0.08, 0.67]
## SD (Intercept: country)      |        0.62 | 0.24 | [0.28, 1.34]
## SD (Residual)                |        0.77 | 0.04 | [0.70, 0.86]

Local & charismatic participants, grouped by country

Study 2

An informal summary: above and beyond differences across countries and samples (charismatic vs. general population), the more frequently a person reported praying, the more spiritual events they reported having experienced. This is robust to many analytic decisions, including modeling responses at the item level vs. modeling average scores on the Spiritual Events scale and considering sample characteristics as fixed or random effects.

All participants

## # Fixed Effects
## 
## Parameter                  | Coefficient |   SE |        95% CI | t(992) |      p
## ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
## (Intercept)                |        0.02 | 0.15 | [-0.28, 0.32] |   0.15 | 0.883 
## prayminday imp0            |        0.28 | 0.04 | [ 0.20, 0.35] |   7.39 | < .001
## howr num                   |        0.16 | 0.04 | [ 0.08, 0.24] |   4.10 | < .001
## prayminday imp0 × howr num |        0.07 | 0.03 | [ 0.00, 0.14] |   2.07 | 0.039 
## 
## # Random Effects
## 
## Parameter                          | Coefficient |   SE |       95% CI
## ----------------------------------------------------------------------
## SD (Intercept: population:country) |        0.29 | 0.11 | [0.14, 0.61]
## SD (Intercept: country)            |        0.25 | 0.18 | [0.06, 1.00]
## SD (Residual)                      |        0.79 | 0.02 | [0.76, 0.83]

Charismatic Christians

## # Fixed Effects
## 
## Parameter                  | Coefficient |   SE |        95% CI | t(241) |      p
## ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
## (Intercept)                |        0.04 | 0.16 | [-0.27, 0.34] |   0.23 | 0.815 
## prayminday imp0            |        0.38 | 0.07 | [ 0.24, 0.51] |   5.65 | < .001
## howr num                   |        0.14 | 0.08 | [-0.02, 0.30] |   1.68 | 0.095 
## prayminday imp0 × howr num |       -0.08 | 0.08 | [-0.24, 0.07] |  -1.02 | 0.306 
## 
## # Random Effects
## 
## Parameter               | Coefficient |   SE |       95% CI
## -----------------------------------------------------------
## SD (Intercept: country) |        0.28 | 0.14 | [0.11, 0.76]
## SD (Residual)           |        0.91 | 0.04 | [0.84, 1.00]

General population & charismatic participants, grouped by country

Study 3

An informal summary: above and beyond differences across denominations, the more frequently a person reported praying, the more spiritual events they reported having experienced. This is robust to many analytic decisions, including [NOT YET CONFIRMED: modeling responses at the item level vs. modeling average scores on the Spiritual Events scale and] considering sample characteristics as fixed vs. random effects.

All participants

## # Fixed Effects
## 
## Parameter                             | Coefficient |   SE |        95% CI | t(1747) |      p
## ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
## (Intercept)                           |        0.06 | 0.10 | [-0.14, 0.27] |    0.60 | 0.551 
## pray freq PEW num                     |        0.32 | 0.03 | [ 0.25, 0.39] |    9.31 | < .001
## demo religimp num                     |        0.25 | 0.04 | [ 0.17, 0.32] |    6.50 | < .001
## pray freq PEW num × demo religimp num |       -0.02 | 0.03 | [-0.08, 0.03] |   -0.82 | 0.410 
## 
## # Random Effects
## 
## Parameter                      | Coefficient
## --------------------------------------------
## SD (Intercept: religion_denom) |        0.24
## SD (Residual)                  |        0.83

Christian participants

## # Fixed Effects
## 
## Parameter                             | Coefficient |   SE |        95% CI | t(754) |      p
## --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
## (Intercept)                           |        0.13 | 0.17 | [-0.20, 0.47] |   0.78 | 0.434 
## pray freq PEW num                     |        0.19 | 0.04 | [ 0.11, 0.28] |   4.32 | < .001
## demo religimp num                     |        0.23 | 0.05 | [ 0.14, 0.32] |   4.88 | < .001
## pray freq PEW num × demo religimp num |   -7.10e-03 | 0.04 | [-0.08, 0.06] |  -0.20 | 0.844 
## 
## # Random Effects
## 
## Parameter                    | Coefficient |   SE |       95% CI
## ----------------------------------------------------------------
## SD (Intercept: religion_cat) |        0.48 | 0.14 | [0.27, 0.85]
## SD (Residual)                |        0.90 | 0.02 | [0.86, 0.95]

Analysis 2: Prayer Affects Some Spiritual Presence Events More Than Others

Study 1

Reliability of Categories

## 
## Reliability analysis   
## Call: alpha(x = relabeled_int)
## 
##   raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N   ase mean   sd median_r
##       0.61      0.62     0.6      0.19 1.6 0.032 0.65 0.26      0.2
## 
##     95% confidence boundaries 
##          lower alpha upper
## Feldt     0.55  0.61  0.67
## Duhachek  0.55  0.61  0.68
## 
##  Reliability if an item is dropped:
##                 raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N alpha se  var.r med.r
## thought_mind         0.55      0.55    0.53      0.17 1.2    0.038 0.0084  0.20
## vision_mind          0.55      0.55    0.54      0.17 1.2    0.038 0.0101  0.19
## dreams               0.60      0.60    0.58      0.20 1.5    0.034 0.0082  0.20
## knowing              0.62      0.62    0.60      0.21 1.6    0.032 0.0082  0.22
## sensation            0.57      0.57    0.55      0.18 1.3    0.036 0.0103  0.19
## body_experience      0.55      0.55    0.54      0.17 1.2    0.038 0.0099  0.20
## intense_emotion      0.59      0.59    0.56      0.20 1.5    0.034 0.0044  0.20
## 
##  Item statistics 
##                   n raw.r std.r r.cor r.drop mean   sd
## thought_mind    325  0.60  0.61  0.53   0.40 0.74 0.44
## vision_mind     329  0.62  0.60  0.50   0.40 0.49 0.50
## dreams          331  0.48  0.49  0.34   0.26 0.71 0.46
## knowing         323  0.46  0.45  0.27   0.20 0.63 0.48
## sensation       312  0.56  0.58  0.46   0.36 0.76 0.43
## body_experience 326  0.61  0.60  0.50   0.40 0.66 0.48
## intense_emotion 330  0.53  0.51  0.39   0.28 0.60 0.49
## 
## Non missing response frequency for each item
##                    0    1 miss
## thought_mind    0.26 0.74 0.04
## vision_mind     0.51 0.49 0.03
## dreams          0.29 0.71 0.02
## knowing         0.37 0.63 0.04
## sensation       0.24 0.76 0.08
## body_experience 0.34 0.66 0.04
## intense_emotion 0.40 0.60 0.02
## 
## Reliability analysis   
## Call: alpha(x = outer_sensory_int)
## 
##   raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N  ase mean   sd median_r
##       0.65      0.65    0.62      0.27 1.9 0.03 0.33 0.31     0.24
## 
##     95% confidence boundaries 
##          lower alpha upper
## Feldt     0.59  0.65  0.71
## Duhachek  0.59  0.65  0.71
## 
##  Reliability if an item is dropped:
##                raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N alpha se  var.r med.r
## voice_ears          0.56      0.56    0.50      0.24 1.3    0.039 0.0040  0.22
## vision_eyes         0.60      0.60    0.53      0.27 1.5    0.036 0.0053  0.27
## touch               0.61      0.60    0.55      0.28 1.5    0.035 0.0097  0.24
## smell               0.58      0.58    0.53      0.26 1.4    0.037 0.0100  0.22
## see_hear_other      0.64      0.64    0.59      0.31 1.8    0.032 0.0091  0.31
## 
##  Item statistics 
##                  n raw.r std.r r.cor r.drop mean   sd
## voice_ears     328  0.71  0.70  0.61   0.48 0.43 0.50
## vision_eyes    326  0.66  0.65  0.52   0.41 0.37 0.48
## touch          321  0.63  0.63  0.48   0.39 0.29 0.45
## smell          333  0.67  0.67  0.54   0.43 0.28 0.45
## see_hear_other 329  0.57  0.58  0.38   0.31 0.29 0.46
## 
## Non missing response frequency for each item
##                   0    1 miss
## voice_ears     0.57 0.43 0.03
## vision_eyes    0.63 0.37 0.04
## touch          0.71 0.29 0.05
## smell          0.72 0.28 0.01
## see_hear_other 0.71 0.29 0.03
## 
## Reliability analysis   
## Call: alpha(x = presence_int)
## 
##   raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N   ase mean   sd median_r
##       0.51      0.51    0.42      0.26   1 0.046 0.49 0.35     0.22
## 
##     95% confidence boundaries 
##          lower alpha upper
## Feldt     0.41  0.51  0.59
## Duhachek  0.42  0.51  0.60
## 
##  Reliability if an item is dropped:
##                           raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r  S/N alpha se
## presence_god                   0.37      0.37    0.22      0.22 0.58    0.069
## presence_ghostangelspirit      0.35      0.35    0.21      0.21 0.54    0.071
## presence_demon                 0.50      0.50    0.34      0.34 1.02    0.054
##                           var.r med.r
## presence_god                 NA  0.22
## presence_ghostangelspirit    NA  0.21
## presence_demon               NA  0.34
## 
##  Item statistics 
##                             n raw.r std.r r.cor r.drop mean   sd
## presence_god              329  0.72  0.73  0.50   0.35 0.34 0.48
## presence_ghostangelspirit 326  0.74  0.73  0.51   0.36 0.56 0.50
## presence_demon            328  0.68  0.67  0.37   0.27 0.56 0.50
## 
## Non missing response frequency for each item
##                              0    1 miss
## presence_god              0.66 0.34 0.03
## presence_ghostangelspirit 0.44 0.56 0.04
## presence_demon            0.44 0.56 0.03
## 
## Reliability analysis   
## Call: alpha(x = weird_int)
## 
##   raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r  S/N   ase mean   sd median_r
##        0.4       0.4    0.35      0.15 0.68 0.053 0.33 0.27     0.17
## 
##     95% confidence boundaries 
##          lower alpha upper
## Feldt     0.28   0.4   0.5
## Duhachek  0.29   0.4   0.5
## 
##  Reliability if an item is dropped:
##                 raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r  S/N alpha se  var.r
## possession_self      0.29      0.29    0.22     0.118 0.40    0.067 0.0087
## out_of_body          0.35      0.35    0.28     0.154 0.55    0.062 0.0110
## shapeshifter         0.22      0.23    0.18     0.092 0.31    0.074 0.0130
## sleep_paralysis      0.45      0.45    0.36     0.217 0.83    0.051 0.0015
##                 med.r
## possession_self 0.166
## out_of_body     0.166
## shapeshifter    0.044
## sleep_paralysis 0.223
## 
##  Item statistics 
##                   n raw.r std.r r.cor r.drop mean   sd
## possession_self 329  0.63  0.63  0.43   0.26 0.26 0.44
## out_of_body     327  0.54  0.59  0.33   0.20 0.18 0.39
## shapeshifter    325  0.68  0.67  0.49   0.32 0.30 0.46
## sleep_paralysis 330  0.56  0.51  0.17   0.11 0.58 0.49
## 
## Non missing response frequency for each item
##                    0    1 miss
## possession_self 0.74 0.26 0.03
## out_of_body     0.82 0.18 0.03
## shapeshifter    0.70 0.30 0.04
## sleep_paralysis 0.42 0.58 0.02

Correlations

Category Mean R Question Item-wise R
relabeled 0.183 thought_mind 0.270
relabeled 0.183 intense_emotion 0.257
relabeled 0.183 vision_mind 0.239
relabeled 0.183 sensation 0.202
relabeled 0.183 dreams 0.159
relabeled 0.183 body_experience 0.083
relabeled 0.183 knowing 0.071
(other) 0.147 slain_in_spirit 0.348
(other) 0.147 scripture 0.257
(other) 0.147 time_slow 0.229
(other) 0.147 rush_power 0.173
(other) 0.147 people 0.108
(other) 0.147 place_body 0.091
(other) 0.147 encounter_other -0.011
(other) 0.147 white_light -0.015
presence 0.124 presence_demon 0.274
presence 0.124 presence_god 0.070
presence 0.124 presence_ghostangelspirit 0.028
outer_sensory 0.087 vision_eyes 0.174
outer_sensory 0.087 voice_ears 0.157
outer_sensory 0.087 see_hear_other 0.061
outer_sensory 0.087 touch 0.060
outer_sensory 0.087 smell -0.018
weird 0.005 out_of_body 0.091
weird 0.005 possession_self 0.020
weird 0.005 shapeshifter -0.034
weird 0.005 sleep_paralysis -0.055

Linear mixed effects models

All participants

## # Fixed Effects
## 
## Parameter                              | Coefficient |   SE |         95% CI | t(1320) |      p
## -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
## (Intercept)                            |        0.69 | 0.18 | [ 0.34,  1.05] |    3.85 | < .001
## category [outer_sensory]               |       -1.03 | 0.06 | [-1.14, -0.92] |  -17.92 | < .001
## category [presence]                    |       -0.52 | 0.06 | [-0.64, -0.41] |   -9.12 | < .001
## category [weird]                       |       -1.04 | 0.06 | [-1.15, -0.93] |  -18.05 | < .001
## prayfreqmin                            |        0.26 | 0.05 | [ 0.16,  0.35] |    5.26 | < .001
## category [outer_sensory] × prayfreqmin |       -0.15 | 0.06 | [-0.26, -0.04] |   -2.61 | 0.009 
## category [presence] × prayfreqmin      |       -0.07 | 0.06 | [-0.18,  0.04] |   -1.25 | 0.213 
## category [weird] × prayfreqmin         |       -0.28 | 0.06 | [-0.39, -0.16] |   -4.79 | < .001
## 
## # Random Effects
## 
## Parameter                                            | Coefficient
## ------------------------------------------------------------------
## SD (Intercept: subject_id:(religion:(site:country))) |        0.39
## SD (Intercept: religion:(site:country))              |        0.29
## SD (Intercept: site:country)                         |        0.07
## SD (Intercept: country)                              |        0.36
## SD (Residual)                                        |        0.74

Charismatic Christian participants

## # Fixed Effects
## 
## Parameter                              | Coefficient |   SE |         95% CI | t(691) |      p
## ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
## (Intercept)                            |        0.01 | 0.18 | [-0.34,  0.37] |   0.08 | 0.938 
## categoryrelabeled GM                   |        0.95 | 0.05 | [ 0.86,  1.04] |  20.62 | < .001
## categoryouter sensory GM               |       -0.50 | 0.05 | [-0.59, -0.41] | -10.75 | < .001
## categorypresence GM                    |        0.09 | 0.05 | [ 0.00,  0.18] |   1.98 | 0.048 
## prayfreqmin                            |        0.12 | 0.04 | [ 0.04,  0.20] |   2.93 | 0.003 
## categoryrelabeled GM × prayfreqmin     |        0.09 | 0.05 | [-0.01,  0.18] |   1.85 | 0.065 
## categoryouter sensory GM × prayfreqmin |        0.02 | 0.05 | [-0.07,  0.11] |   0.47 | 0.641 
## categorypresence GM × prayfreqmin      |        0.06 | 0.05 | [-0.04,  0.15] |   1.20 | 0.230 
## 
## # Random Effects
## 
## Parameter                                 | Coefficient
## -------------------------------------------------------
## SD (Intercept: subject_id:(site:country)) |        0.32
## SD (Intercept: site:country)              |        0.15
## SD (Intercept: country)                   |        0.38
## SD (Residual)                             |        0.71

Study 2

Reliability of Categories

## 
## Reliability analysis   
## Call: alpha(x = relabeled_epi)
## 
##   raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N   ase mean  sd median_r
##       0.76      0.76    0.72      0.45 3.2 0.011  1.2 1.3     0.44
## 
##     95% confidence boundaries 
##          lower alpha upper
## Feldt     0.74  0.76  0.79
## Duhachek  0.74  0.76  0.79
## 
##  Reliability if an item is dropped:
##              raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N alpha se  var.r med.r
## dreams            0.76      0.76    0.69      0.51 3.1    0.012 0.0079  0.48
## voice_mind        0.65      0.66    0.57      0.39 2.0    0.018 0.0062  0.38
## thought_mind      0.66      0.67    0.58      0.40 2.0    0.017 0.0044  0.44
## vision_mind       0.73      0.73    0.66      0.48 2.7    0.014 0.0149  0.44
## 
##  Item statistics 
##                 n raw.r std.r r.cor r.drop mean  sd
## dreams       1019  0.68  0.70  0.53   0.47  1.1 1.6
## voice_mind   1021  0.84  0.81  0.75   0.65  1.3 1.9
## thought_mind 1018  0.83  0.81  0.73   0.64  1.6 2.0
## vision_mind  1012  0.70  0.74  0.59   0.52  0.7 1.4
## 
## Non missing response frequency for each item
##                 0    1    2    3    4    5 miss
## dreams       0.55 0.17 0.11 0.05 0.03 0.09 0.01
## voice_mind   0.62 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.16 0.00
## thought_mind 0.51 0.12 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.19 0.01
## vision_mind  0.74 0.09 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.06 0.01
## 
## Reliability analysis   
## Call: alpha(x = outer_sensory_epi)
## 
##   raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N   ase mean   sd median_r
##       0.64      0.64    0.58       0.3 1.7 0.017 0.37 0.72     0.32
## 
##     95% confidence boundaries 
##          lower alpha upper
## Feldt      0.6  0.64  0.67
## Duhachek   0.6  0.64  0.67
## 
##  Reliability if an item is dropped:
##             raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N alpha se  var.r med.r
## voice_ears       0.52      0.53    0.44      0.27 1.1    0.025 0.0062  0.31
## vision_eyes      0.55      0.56    0.47      0.30 1.3    0.023 0.0068  0.31
## touch            0.53      0.52    0.44      0.27 1.1    0.023 0.0155  0.21
## smell            0.64      0.64    0.54      0.37 1.8    0.019 0.0019  0.38
## 
##  Item statistics 
##                n raw.r std.r r.cor r.drop mean   sd
## voice_ears  1018  0.78  0.72  0.59   0.48 0.48 1.24
## vision_eyes 1016  0.73  0.69  0.54   0.44 0.44 1.12
## touch       1016  0.72  0.73  0.59   0.47 0.38 1.00
## smell       1006  0.51  0.62  0.39   0.30 0.17 0.69
## 
## Non missing response frequency for each item
##                0    1    2    3    4    5 miss
## voice_ears  0.81 0.08 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.05 0.01
## vision_eyes 0.81 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.01
## touch       0.81 0.10 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.01
## smell       0.91 0.06 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02
## 
## Reliability analysis   
## Call: alpha(x = presence_epi)
## 
##   raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N   ase mean   sd median_r
##       0.71      0.73     0.7      0.31 2.7 0.014 0.53 0.77     0.33
## 
##     95% confidence boundaries 
##          lower alpha upper
## Feldt     0.68  0.71  0.74
## Duhachek  0.69  0.71  0.74
## 
##  Reliability if an item is dropped:
##                           raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N alpha se
## presence_god                   0.70      0.70    0.66      0.32 2.4    0.015
## presence_demon                 0.67      0.69    0.65      0.31 2.3    0.016
## presence_ghostangelspirit      0.66      0.68    0.63      0.29 2.1    0.017
## presence_dead                  0.67      0.69    0.65      0.30 2.2    0.016
## presence_naturespirit          0.68      0.69    0.65      0.31 2.3    0.016
## presence_witch                 0.67      0.68    0.64      0.30 2.1    0.016
##                            var.r med.r
## presence_god              0.0026  0.33
## presence_demon            0.0033  0.33
## presence_ghostangelspirit 0.0033  0.29
## presence_dead             0.0036  0.31
## presence_naturespirit     0.0019  0.31
## presence_witch            0.0036  0.31
## 
##  Item statistics 
##                              n raw.r std.r r.cor r.drop mean   sd
## presence_god              1012  0.69  0.61  0.48   0.41 0.96 1.62
## presence_demon             920  0.64  0.64  0.53   0.45 0.51 1.19
## presence_ghostangelspirit  816  0.68  0.69  0.60   0.50 0.66 1.33
## presence_dead              918  0.63  0.66  0.55   0.46 0.50 1.11
## presence_naturespirit      916  0.58  0.64  0.53   0.44 0.28 0.92
## presence_witch             920  0.64  0.67  0.57   0.47 0.36 1.03
## 
## Non missing response frequency for each item
##                              0    1    2    3    4    5 miss
## presence_god              0.63 0.15 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.10 0.01
## presence_demon            0.77 0.13 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.05 0.10
## presence_ghostangelspirit 0.71 0.14 0.07 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.20
## presence_dead             0.74 0.16 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.04 0.10
## presence_naturespirit     0.87 0.07 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.11
## presence_witch            0.83 0.10 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.04 0.10
## 
## Reliability analysis   
## Call: alpha(x = weird_epi)
## 
##   raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r  S/N   ase mean   sd median_r
##       0.35      0.37     0.3      0.17 0.59 0.027 0.47 0.68     0.13
## 
##     95% confidence boundaries 
##          lower alpha upper
## Feldt     0.28  0.35  0.42
## Duhachek  0.30  0.35  0.41
## 
##  Reliability if an item is dropped:
##                 raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r  S/N alpha se var.r med.r
## out_of_body         0.416      0.45    0.29      0.29 0.83    0.032    NA  0.29
## shapeshifter        0.078      0.13    0.07      0.07 0.15    0.033    NA  0.07
## sleep_paralysis     0.195      0.23    0.13      0.13 0.30    0.041    NA  0.13
## 
##  Item statistics 
##                    n raw.r std.r r.cor r.drop mean   sd
## out_of_body     1023  0.34  0.60  0.20   0.11 0.12 0.47
## shapeshifter    1019  0.68  0.71  0.48   0.31 0.27 0.90
## sleep_paralysis 1021  0.87  0.68  0.41   0.28 1.01 1.46
## 
## Non missing response frequency for each item
##                    0    1    2    3 4    5 miss
## out_of_body     0.91 0.06 0.02 0.01 0 0.00 0.00
## shapeshifter    0.86 0.08 0.02 0.00 0 0.03 0.01
## sleep_paralysis 0.50 0.29 0.10 0.02 0 0.09 0.00

Correlations

Category Mean R Question Item-wise R
relabeled 0.394 dreams 0.433
relabeled 0.394 thought_mind 0.429
relabeled 0.394 voice_mind 0.409
relabeled 0.394 vision_mind 0.306
outer_sensory 0.291 vision_eyes 0.360
outer_sensory 0.291 voice_ears 0.350
outer_sensory 0.291 touch 0.279
outer_sensory 0.291 smell 0.174
(other) 0.185 possession_other 0.229
(other) 0.185 possession 0.142
presence 0.178 presence_god 0.327
presence 0.178 presence_demon 0.245
presence 0.178 presence_witch 0.175
presence 0.178 presence_ghostangelspirit 0.131
presence 0.178 presence_dead 0.119
presence 0.178 presence_naturespirit 0.071
weird 0.082 sleep_paralysis 0.147
weird 0.082 shapeshifter 0.122
weird 0.082 out_of_body -0.022

Mixed effects models

All participants

## # Fixed Effects
## 
## Parameter                                               | Coefficient |   SE |         95% CI | t(3976) |      p
## ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
## (Intercept)                                             |        0.09 | 0.12 | [-0.14,  0.32] |    0.74 | 0.458 
## categoryrelabeled GM                                    |        0.60 | 0.02 | [ 0.55,  0.64] |   25.08 | < .001
## categoryouter sensory GM                                |       -0.30 | 0.02 | [-0.34, -0.25] |  -12.47 | < .001
## categorypresence GM                                     |       -0.14 | 0.02 | [-0.18, -0.09] |   -5.79 | < .001
## prayminday imp0                                         |        0.20 | 0.03 | [ 0.15,  0.25] |    7.34 | < .001
## howr num                                                |        0.10 | 0.03 | [ 0.05,  0.16] |    3.59 | < .001
## categoryrelabeled GM × prayminday imp0                  |        0.30 | 0.03 | [ 0.25,  0.35] |   11.69 | < .001
## categoryouter sensory GM × prayminday imp0              |        0.08 | 0.03 | [ 0.03,  0.13] |    3.15 | 0.002 
## categorypresence GM × prayminday imp0                   |       -0.15 | 0.03 | [-0.20, -0.10] |   -5.93 | < .001
## categoryrelabeled GM × howr num                         |        0.17 | 0.03 | [ 0.12,  0.22] |    6.73 | < .001
## categoryouter sensory GM × howr num                     |       -0.20 | 0.03 | [-0.25, -0.15] |   -7.70 | < .001
## categorypresence GM × howr num                          |        0.05 | 0.03 | [ 0.00,  0.10] |    1.94 | 0.053 
## prayminday imp0 × howr num                              |        0.04 | 0.03 | [-0.01,  0.09] |    1.74 | 0.082 
## (categoryrelabeled GM × prayminday imp0) × howr num     |       -0.01 | 0.03 | [-0.06,  0.04] |   -0.57 | 0.566 
## (categoryouter sensory GM × prayminday imp0) × howr num |    6.45e-03 | 0.03 | [-0.04,  0.06] |    0.26 | 0.799 
## (categorypresence GM × prayminday imp0) × howr num      |        0.04 | 0.03 | [-0.01,  0.09] |    1.51 | 0.132 
## 
## # Random Effects
## 
## Parameter                                       | Coefficient
## -------------------------------------------------------------
## SD (Intercept: subject_id:(population:country)) |        0.45
## SD (Intercept: population:country)              |        0.21
## SD (Intercept: country)                         |        0.20
## SD (Residual)                                   |        0.72

Charismatic Christian participants

## # Fixed Effects
## 
## Parameter                                               | Coefficient |   SE |         95% CI |    t(969) |      p
## ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
## (Intercept)                                             |        0.13 | 0.09 | [-0.05,  0.31] |      1.37 | 0.169 
## categoryrelabeled GM                                    |        1.01 | 0.04 | [ 0.92,  1.09] |     23.99 | < .001
## categoryouter sensory GM                                |       -0.33 | 0.04 | [-0.41, -0.24] |     -7.80 | < .001
## categorypresence GM                                     |       -0.26 | 0.04 | [-0.35, -0.18] |     -6.30 | < .001
## prayminday imp0                                         |        0.22 | 0.04 | [ 0.14,  0.30] |      5.41 | < .001
## howr num                                                |        0.07 | 0.05 | [-0.03,  0.17] |      1.41 | 0.158 
## categoryrelabeled GM × prayminday imp0                  |        0.17 | 0.04 | [ 0.09,  0.26] |      4.06 | < .001
## categoryouter sensory GM × prayminday imp0              |        0.14 | 0.04 | [ 0.05,  0.22] |      3.24 | 0.001 
## categorypresence GM × prayminday imp0                   |       -0.10 | 0.04 | [-0.18, -0.01] |     -2.22 | 0.027 
## categoryrelabeled GM × howr num                         |       -0.04 | 0.04 | [-0.12,  0.05] |     -0.81 | 0.416 
## categoryouter sensory GM × howr num                     |       -0.13 | 0.04 | [-0.22, -0.05] |     -3.02 | 0.003 
## categorypresence GM × howr num                          |        0.12 | 0.04 | [ 0.03,  0.20] |      2.66 | 0.008 
## prayminday imp0 × howr num                              |       -0.05 | 0.05 | [-0.15,  0.04] |     -1.09 | 0.278 
## (categoryrelabeled GM × prayminday imp0) × howr num     |       -0.06 | 0.05 | [-0.16,  0.04] |     -1.09 | 0.274 
## (categoryouter sensory GM × prayminday imp0) × howr num |   -4.09e-04 | 0.05 | [-0.10,  0.10] | -8.03e-03 | 0.994 
## (categorypresence GM × prayminday imp0) × howr num      |        0.07 | 0.05 | [-0.03,  0.17] |      1.32 | 0.186 
## 
## # Random Effects
## 
## Parameter                          | Coefficient |   SE |       95% CI
## ----------------------------------------------------------------------
## SD (Intercept: subject_id:country) |        0.45 | 0.03 | [0.39, 0.52]
## SD (Intercept: country)            |        0.17 | 0.09 | [0.06, 0.46]
## SD (Residual)                      |        0.69 | 0.02 | [0.66, 0.73]

Study 3

Reliability of Categories

## 
## Reliability analysis   
## Call: alpha(x = relabeled_pro)
## 
##   raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N    ase mean   sd median_r
##       0.87      0.86    0.88      0.48 6.3 0.0039 0.56 0.76     0.53
## 
##     95% confidence boundaries 
##          lower alpha upper
## Feldt     0.86  0.87  0.88
## Duhachek  0.86  0.87  0.88
## 
##  Reliability if an item is dropped:
##                    raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N alpha se var.r
## spiritualevents_02      0.83      0.83    0.84      0.45 4.8   0.0051 0.031
## spiritualevents_03      0.83      0.82    0.83      0.44 4.7   0.0054 0.028
## spiritualevents_05      0.83      0.83    0.84      0.44 4.7   0.0052 0.031
## spiritualevents_09      0.84      0.84    0.85      0.46 5.1   0.0047 0.038
## spiritualevents_14      0.85      0.85    0.86      0.48 5.5   0.0044 0.038
## spiritualevents_19      0.88      0.87    0.87      0.54 6.9   0.0039 0.031
## spiritualevents_20      0.88      0.87    0.87      0.52 6.6   0.0038 0.037
##                    med.r
## spiritualevents_02  0.35
## spiritualevents_03  0.35
## spiritualevents_05  0.34
## spiritualevents_09  0.35
## spiritualevents_14  0.35
## spiritualevents_19  0.57
## spiritualevents_20  0.57
## 
##  Item statistics 
##                       n raw.r std.r r.cor r.drop mean   sd
## spiritualevents_02 1606  0.85  0.82  0.81   0.78 0.59 1.05
## spiritualevents_03 1596  0.87  0.85  0.85   0.81 0.73 1.17
## spiritualevents_05 1577  0.86  0.84  0.83   0.80 0.54 0.99
## spiritualevents_09 1592  0.81  0.78  0.74   0.71 0.76 1.09
## spiritualevents_14 1727  0.76  0.73  0.67   0.65 0.84 1.13
## spiritualevents_19 1647  0.48  0.56  0.46   0.38 0.10 0.49
## spiritualevents_20 1623  0.53  0.60  0.50   0.41 0.17 0.59
## 
## Non missing response frequency for each item
##                       0    1    2    3    4 miss
## spiritualevents_02 0.72 0.06 0.15 0.04 0.03 0.10
## spiritualevents_03 0.68 0.04 0.18 0.06 0.04 0.10
## spiritualevents_05 0.74 0.06 0.15 0.04 0.01 0.11
## spiritualevents_09 0.62 0.08 0.24 0.03 0.03 0.11
## spiritualevents_14 0.60 0.07 0.26 0.04 0.03 0.03
## spiritualevents_19 0.95 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.07
## spiritualevents_20 0.91 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.09
## 
## Reliability analysis   
## Call: alpha(x = outer_sensory_pro)
## 
##   raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N    ase mean   sd median_r
##       0.82      0.82    0.81      0.48 4.7 0.0058 0.31 0.62     0.46
## 
##     95% confidence boundaries 
##          lower alpha upper
## Feldt     0.81  0.82  0.83
## Duhachek  0.81  0.82  0.83
## 
##  Reliability if an item is dropped:
##                    raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N alpha se  var.r
## spiritualevents_01      0.77      0.78    0.75      0.47 3.6   0.0075 0.0149
## spiritualevents_04      0.76      0.77    0.73      0.45 3.3   0.0084 0.0093
## spiritualevents_06      0.75      0.77    0.73      0.45 3.3   0.0084 0.0100
## spiritualevents_07      0.79      0.79    0.76      0.49 3.8   0.0066 0.0231
## spiritualevents_08      0.83      0.83    0.80      0.56 5.0   0.0061 0.0074
##                    med.r
## spiritualevents_01  0.46
## spiritualevents_04  0.44
## spiritualevents_06  0.44
## spiritualevents_07  0.47
## spiritualevents_08  0.56
## 
##  Item statistics 
##                       n raw.r std.r r.cor r.drop  mean   sd
## spiritualevents_01 1613  0.81  0.78  0.71   0.66 0.306 0.75
## spiritualevents_04 1592  0.86  0.82  0.77   0.72 0.491 0.94
## spiritualevents_06 1643  0.86  0.82  0.78   0.72 0.391 0.84
## spiritualevents_07 1647  0.78  0.76  0.67   0.60 0.172 0.60
## spiritualevents_08 1677  0.61  0.65  0.50   0.45 0.076 0.43
## 
## Non missing response frequency for each item
##                       0    1    2    3    4 miss
## spiritualevents_01 0.84 0.05 0.09 0.02 0.01 0.09
## spiritualevents_04 0.75 0.08 0.12 0.03 0.02 0.11
## spiritualevents_06 0.79 0.08 0.10 0.02 0.01 0.08
## spiritualevents_07 0.91 0.02 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.07
## spiritualevents_08 0.96 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.06
## 
## Reliability analysis   
## Call: alpha(x = presence_pro)
## 
##   raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N   ase mean   sd median_r
##       0.73      0.74    0.67      0.49 2.9 0.011 0.51 0.79      0.5
## 
##     95% confidence boundaries 
##          lower alpha upper
## Feldt     0.71  0.73  0.75
## Duhachek  0.71  0.73  0.75
## 
##  Reliability if an item is dropped:
##                    raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N alpha se var.r
## spiritualevents_10      0.74      0.74    0.59      0.59 2.9    0.012    NA
## spiritualevents_11      0.53      0.54    0.37      0.37 1.2    0.022    NA
## spiritualevents_12      0.67      0.67    0.50      0.50 2.0    0.016    NA
##                    med.r
## spiritualevents_10  0.59
## spiritualevents_11  0.37
## spiritualevents_12  0.50
## 
##  Item statistics 
##                       n raw.r std.r r.cor r.drop mean   sd
## spiritualevents_10 1615  0.83  0.77  0.57   0.49 0.57 1.00
## spiritualevents_11 1638  0.86  0.86  0.77   0.65 0.44 0.86
## spiritualevents_12 1479  0.81  0.81  0.66   0.54 0.38 0.82
## 
## Non missing response frequency for each item
##                       0    1    2    3    4 miss
## spiritualevents_10 0.71 0.07 0.16 0.03 0.02 0.09
## spiritualevents_11 0.76 0.08 0.14 0.02 0.01 0.08
## spiritualevents_12 0.79 0.07 0.11 0.02 0.01 0.17
## 
## Reliability analysis   
## Call: alpha(x = weird_pro)
## 
##   raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r S/N   ase mean   sd median_r
##       0.49      0.54    0.45      0.28 1.2 0.019 0.42 0.57     0.29
## 
##     95% confidence boundaries 
##          lower alpha upper
## Feldt     0.45  0.49  0.53
## Duhachek  0.45  0.49  0.53
## 
##  Reliability if an item is dropped:
##                    raw_alpha std.alpha G6(smc) average_r  S/N alpha se var.r
## spiritualevents_16      0.25      0.30    0.18      0.18 0.43    0.028    NA
## spiritualevents_17      0.43      0.45    0.29      0.29 0.83    0.025    NA
## spiritualevents_18      0.52      0.55    0.38      0.38 1.21    0.021    NA
##                    med.r
## spiritualevents_16  0.18
## spiritualevents_17  0.29
## spiritualevents_18  0.38
## 
##  Item statistics 
##                       n raw.r std.r r.cor r.drop mean   sd
## spiritualevents_16 1701  0.75  0.77  0.59   0.40 0.32 0.71
## spiritualevents_17 1710  0.58  0.72  0.48   0.32 0.12 0.49
## spiritualevents_18 1723  0.81  0.68  0.39   0.29 0.80 1.01
## 
## Non missing response frequency for each item
##                       0    1    2    3    4 miss
## spiritualevents_16 0.80 0.10 0.09 0.01 0.00 0.04
## spiritualevents_17 0.93 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.04
## spiritualevents_18 0.56 0.15 0.25 0.03 0.02 0.03

Correlations

Category Mean R Question Item-wise R
relabeled 0.458 thoughts_mind 0.626
relabeled 0.458 overwhelm_emotion 0.618
relabeled 0.458 dream 0.549
relabeled 0.458 vision_mind 0.529
relabeled 0.458 voice_mind 0.521
relabeled 0.458 illness 0.196
relabeled 0.458 pain 0.171
(other) 0.362 healing_self 0.419
(other) 0.362 power 0.414
(other) 0.362 healing_other 0.384
(other) 0.362 slain_in_spirit 0.230
outer_sensory 0.300 vision_eyes 0.438
outer_sensory 0.300 touch 0.381
outer_sensory 0.300 voice_ears 0.358
outer_sensory 0.300 smell 0.190
outer_sensory 0.300 taste 0.134
presence 0.296 presence_god 0.458
presence 0.296 presence_demon 0.291
presence 0.296 presence_other 0.139
weird 0.086 possession 0.180
weird 0.086 out_of_body 0.089
weird 0.086 sleep_paralysis -0.011

Mixed effects models

All participants

## # Fixed Effects
## 
## Parameter                                                          | Coefficient |   SE |         95% CI | t(6925) |      p
## ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
## (Intercept)                                                        |        0.15 | 0.10 | [-0.04,  0.34] |    1.55 | 0.122 
## categoryouter sensory GM                                           |       -0.23 | 0.02 | [-0.27, -0.20] |  -12.87 | < .001
## categorypresence GM                                                |        0.11 | 0.02 | [ 0.07,  0.15] |    6.05 | < .001
## categoryrelabeled GM                                               |        0.14 | 0.02 | [ 0.11,  0.18] |    7.91 | < .001
## pray freq PEW num                                                  |        0.25 | 0.03 | [ 0.19,  0.31] |    8.36 | < .001
## demo religimp num                                                  |        0.18 | 0.03 | [ 0.12,  0.25] |    5.58 | < .001
## categoryouter sensory GM × pray freq PEW num                       |       -0.05 | 0.02 | [-0.09, -0.01] |   -2.44 | 0.015 
## categorypresence GM × pray freq PEW num                            |        0.06 | 0.02 | [ 0.02,  0.10] |    3.01 | 0.003 
## categoryrelabeled GM × pray freq PEW num                           |        0.20 | 0.02 | [ 0.16,  0.24] |    9.52 | < .001
## categoryouter sensory GM × demo religimp num                       |    9.61e-03 | 0.02 | [-0.03,  0.05] |    0.47 | 0.638 
## categorypresence GM × demo religimp num                            |   -7.35e-03 | 0.02 | [-0.05,  0.03] |   -0.36 | 0.719 
## categoryrelabeled GM × demo religimp num                           |        0.13 | 0.02 | [ 0.09,  0.17] |    6.21 | < .001
## pray freq PEW num × demo religimp num                              |       -0.05 | 0.02 | [-0.09,  0.00] |   -1.92 | 0.055 
## (categoryouter sensory GM × pray freq PEW num) × demo religimp num |        0.04 | 0.02 | [ 0.01,  0.07] |    2.44 | 0.015 
## (categorypresence GM × pray freq PEW num) × demo religimp num      |       -0.03 | 0.02 | [-0.07,  0.00] |   -2.01 | 0.045 
## (categoryrelabeled GM × pray freq PEW num) × demo religimp num     |        0.03 | 0.02 | [-0.01,  0.06] |    1.65 | 0.099 
## 
## # Random Effects
## 
## Parameter                                 | Coefficient
## -------------------------------------------------------
## SD (Intercept: ResponseId:religion_denom) |        0.65
## SD (Intercept: religion_denom)            |        0.22
## SD (Residual)                             |        0.61

All Christians

## # Fixed Effects
## 
## Parameter                                                          | Coefficient |   SE |         95% CI | t(2985) |      p
## ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
## (Intercept)                                                        |        0.16 | 0.12 | [-0.08,  0.40] |    1.28 | 0.200 
## categoryouter sensory GM                                           |       -0.20 | 0.02 | [-0.25, -0.16] |   -8.66 | < .001
## categorypresence GM                                                |        0.07 | 0.02 | [ 0.03,  0.12] |    3.11 | 0.002 
## categoryrelabeled GM                                               |        0.35 | 0.02 | [ 0.31,  0.40] |   15.11 | < .001
## pray freq PEW num                                                  |        0.13 | 0.04 | [ 0.06,  0.21] |    3.57 | < .001
## demo religimp num                                                  |        0.15 | 0.04 | [ 0.08,  0.23] |    3.94 | < .001
## categoryouter sensory GM × pray freq PEW num                       |   -8.77e-03 | 0.03 | [-0.06,  0.04] |   -0.34 | 0.733 
## categorypresence GM × pray freq PEW num                            |        0.05 | 0.03 | [ 0.00,  0.10] |    1.80 | 0.072 
## categoryrelabeled GM × pray freq PEW num                           |        0.16 | 0.03 | [ 0.11,  0.21] |    6.27 | < .001
## categoryouter sensory GM × demo religimp num                       |    1.32e-03 | 0.03 | [-0.05,  0.05] |    0.05 | 0.961 
## categorypresence GM × demo religimp num                            |    9.30e-04 | 0.03 | [-0.05,  0.05] |    0.03 | 0.972 
## categoryrelabeled GM × demo religimp num                           |        0.12 | 0.03 | [ 0.06,  0.17] |    4.37 | < .001
## pray freq PEW num × demo religimp num                              |       -0.03 | 0.03 | [-0.09,  0.03] |   -0.87 | 0.384 
## (categoryouter sensory GM × pray freq PEW num) × demo religimp num |        0.01 | 0.02 | [-0.03,  0.05] |    0.68 | 0.499 
## (categorypresence GM × pray freq PEW num) × demo religimp num      |        0.02 | 0.02 | [-0.02,  0.06] |    1.04 | 0.299 
## (categoryrelabeled GM × pray freq PEW num) × demo religimp num     |        0.01 | 0.02 | [-0.03,  0.05] |    0.62 | 0.537 
## 
## # Random Effects
## 
## Parameter                               | Coefficient
## -----------------------------------------------------
## SD (Intercept: ResponseId:religion_cat) |        0.69
## SD (Intercept: religion_cat)            |        0.33
## SD (Residual)                           |        0.60

Additional Visualizations

Prayer affects the number of experiences

Study 1

Study 2

Study 3

Prayer and Sleep Paralysis

Study 1

Study 2

Study 3

Culture and Dramatic Events

Study 1

Study 2